2018年10月27＆28日托?？荚囬喿x預(yù)測(cè)機(jī)經(jīng)（版本合集?。?/h1>

• 時(shí)間：2021-08-20

• 來(lái)源：留學(xué)監(jiān)理網(wǎng)

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本周末將迎來(lái)本月最后兩場(chǎng)托?？荚?/a>，相信各位考生已經(jīng)做好了充分的準(zhǔn)備。臨考前來(lái)看看兩場(chǎng)考試的預(yù)測(cè)機(jī)經(jīng)，緩解一下緊張的心情吧。以下是兩場(chǎng)考試閱讀預(yù)測(cè)機(jī)經(jīng)。

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{版本1}

一.   Literacy and the Vernacular In Late Medieval Europe

一開(kāi)始說(shuō)辦學(xué)校只有有錢(qián)人家的男孩子能上，F(xiàn)地方600個(gè)學(xué)生上一個(gè)教Latin的學(xué)校目的是要讓他們以clergy和lawyer為career,還有—個(gè)學(xué)校人更多是以artisan和businessman為career的教accounting和方言，后來(lái)傳播開(kāi)來(lái)了，會(huì)read and write的人也有一點(diǎn)了，人們開(kāi)始會(huì)記錄家里的收入和生活，還不會(huì)read和write的人也能聽(tīng)別人講而懂一些消息，然后農(nóng)民和城里人在一年的節(jié)日都會(huì)put aside work幵始一些祭祀活動(dòng)drama, play之類(lèi)的，還有translation—些圣經(jīng)之類(lèi)的從Latin到別的語(yǔ)言，女人在encourage translation中也有作用，然后她們這樣是為她們要guide their children,文章最后又critical地講了一下不用會(huì)read和write也可以懂知識(shí)，舉了2個(gè)人的例子。

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二.   Differences of Biodiversity in geographical patterns

赤道地區(qū)和溫帶地區(qū)物種的多樣性是不同的，熱帶地區(qū)物種多樣性要比溫帶好很多，然后舉了很多物種的例子;有很多理論提出來(lái)解釋這個(gè)現(xiàn)象。第一個(gè)理論是：熱帶地區(qū)接受的光照和降水要比溫帶地區(qū)多很多，意味著reproduce material 也要多很多，有助于植物的reproduce， reproductive的速度也好高很多，有利于多種生物的生存，但是溫帶地區(qū)就要少很多。舉了很多例子。第二個(gè)理論是：熱帶地區(qū)氣候比較穩(wěn)定;有利于多種多樣動(dòng)植物的進(jìn)化和發(fā)展在一個(gè)比較持續(xù)穩(wěn)定的環(huán)境中進(jìn)行，沒(méi)有干擾和中斷;但是溫帶地區(qū)氣候季節(jié)變化比較大，很多生物要存活下來(lái)要能夠忍受極端的寒冷，還舉了間冰期的例子。所以物種的存活和進(jìn)化需要很長(zhǎng)的時(shí)間。熱帶地區(qū)比溫帶地區(qū)持續(xù)的區(qū)間范圍大。熱帶地區(qū)是沿著赤道向南北延伸，是一個(gè)整塊的連續(xù)的地理范圍，但是溫帶地區(qū)是分別分散在北半球和南半球的。同時(shí)因?yàn)闊釒У貐^(qū)溫度較高，所以parasite 比較多，這樣就不利于同一種單一植物大范圍的生長(zhǎng)，擴(kuò)大了同種植物的地理間隔;而溫帶地區(qū)因?yàn)槎緯?huì)殺死一部分植物，所以很多植物是單一物種集中生長(zhǎng)的。 熱帶地區(qū)任何一個(gè)canopy都可能是一個(gè)community, 環(huán)境適合多種生物生長(zhǎng)，但是溫帶地區(qū)則不然。

三.   Eli Terry’s Clock

十九世紀(jì)初，鐘表在美國(guó)是非常奢侈的產(chǎn)品，只有有錢(qián)人才能用得起。一個(gè)鐘匠一年只能生產(chǎn) 10 到 15 只鐘表，特別煞費(fèi)苦心(painstaking)。后來(lái)一個(gè)叫 Eli Terry 的人進(jìn)行了一系列的變革，通過(guò)簡(jiǎn)化制造材料，創(chuàng)新設(shè)備，改善水力等，讓表的產(chǎn)量變得又大、又輕、價(jià)格又便宜。原來(lái)特別重，不好運(yùn)輸，改善得更輕后，可以掛住，不用專(zhuān)門(mén)做 cabinet, 并且中產(chǎn)階級(jí)也能買(mǎi)得起了。從原來(lái)的低產(chǎn)量變成了高產(chǎn)(mass production)。后來(lái)在他持續(xù)的發(fā)明創(chuàng)造中，他在 1816 年造出了 shelf clock, 獲得專(zhuān)利，導(dǎo)致很多人開(kāi)始模仿他，同時(shí)也促進(jìn)了鐘表的精細(xì)化。最后一段提到了另一個(gè)人，和他一起把鐘表變得物美價(jià)廉。

{版本2}

10月27日

Animal Behavior

By the early 1900s the field of animal behavior had split into two major branches. One branch, ethology, developed primarily in Europe. To ethologists, what is striking about animal behaviors in that they are fixed and seemingly unchangeable? For example, kittens and puppies play in characteristic but different ways. Present a kitten with a ball of yarn and invariably it draws back its head and bats the yarn with claws extended. Kittens are generally silent as they play, and their tails twitch. Puppies, by contrast, are most likely to pounce flat-footed on a ball of yarn. They bit and bark and their tails wag. Ethologists came to believe that ultimately even the most complex animal behaviors could be broken down into a series of unchanged able stimulus/response reactions. They became convinced that the details of these patterns were as distinctive of a particular group of animals as were anatomical characteristics. For well over half a century, their search for and description of innate patterns of animal behavior continued.

Meanwhile, mainly in North America, the study of animal behavior took a different tack, developing into comparative behavior. Of interest to comparative behaviorists was where a particular came from, that is, its evolutionary history, how the nervous system controlled it, and the extent to which it could be modified. In 1894, C. Lloyd Morgan, an early comparative behaviorist, insisted that animal behavior be explained as simply as possible without reference to emotions or motivations since these could not be observed or measured. In Morgan’s research, animals were put in simple situations, presented with an easily described stimulus, and their resultant behavior described.

The extension to animals of behaviorism—the idea that the study of behave or should be restricted to only those elements that can be directly observed—was an important development in comparative behavior. Studies of stimulus/response and the importance of simple rewards to enforce and modify animal behavior were stressed. Not surprisingly, comparative behaviorists worked most comfortably in the laboratory. Comparative behaviorists stressed the idea that animal behavior could be modified, while their ethologist colleagues thought it was innate and unchangeable. Inevitably, the two approaches led to major disagreements.

To early ethologists, the major driving force in behavior was instinct, behaviors that are inherited and unchangeable. Moths move towards light because they inherit the mechanism to so respond to light. Although dogs have more options available to them, they bark at strangers for much the same reasons. The comparative behaviorists disagreed: learning and rewards are more important factors than instinct in animal behavior. Geese are not born with the ability to retrieve lost eggs when they roll out the nest, they learn to do so. If their behavior seems sometimes silly to humans because it fails to take new conditions into account, that is because the animal’s ability to learn is limited. There were too many examples of behaviors modified by experience for comparative behaviorists to put their faith in instincts.

The arguments came to a peak in the 1950s and became known as the nature or nurture controversy.

Consider how differently an ethologist and a comparative behaviorist would interpret the begging behavior of a hatchling bird. The first time a hatchling bird is approached by its parent, it begs for food. All baby birds of a particular species beg in exactly the same way. Obviously, said the ethologists, they inherited the ability and the tendency to beg. Baby birds did not have to learn the behavior, they were born with it—a clear example of innate, unchanging behavior. Not so, countered the comparative behaviorists. Parent birds teach their young to beg by stuffing food in their open mouths. Later experiments showed that before hatching, birds make and respond to noises of their nest mates and adults. Is it not possible that young birds could learn to beg prenatally?

It was hard for ethologists to accept that innate behaviors could be modified by learning. It was equally difficult for comparative behaviorists to accept that genetic factors could dominate learning experiences. The controversy raged for over a decade. Eventually,  however, the distinctions between the two fields narrowed. The current view is that both natural endowments and environmental factors work together to shape behavior.

1.The word “ultimately” in the passage is closest in the meaning to

A.noticeably

B.importantly

C.some of the time

D.in the end

2.According to paragraph 1, what do ethologists think is the most notable characteristic of animal behavior?

A.Animal responses in most situations are predictable and do not vary

B.In similar situations, different animal species often behave in similar ways.

C.Even in ordinary situations, animal behavior can be unusually complex.

D.Animal behavior may sometimes include stimulus/response reactions.

3.According to paragraph 2, C. Lloyd Morgan agreed with which of the following statements about animal behavior?

A.Only those elements of animal behavior that could be observed and measured should be used to explain it.

B.Any study of animal behavior should include an explanation of emotions and motivations.

C.Emotions and motivations can be measured indirectly using simple experimental situations.

D.Experimental situations are less than ideal if researchers want to develop a comprehensive explanation of animal behavior.

4.According to paragraph 2, comparative behaviorists were interested in finding answers to all of the following questions EXCEPT

A.How has animal behavior changed over time?

B.How can emotions causing a specific behavior in one animal species help explain behavior in other animal species?

C.To what degree can animal behavior be changed?

D.How does the nervous system regulate animal behavior?

5.Paragraph 3 suggests that comparative behaviorists’ conclusions concerning animal behavior were based

A.on the observation that rewards do not affect inherited animal behavior

B.on the application of stress to modify animal behavior

C.most often on the results of laboratory experiments

D.more on stimulus/response reactions than on simple rewards

6.The word “retrieve” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A.find

B.recover

C.remember

D.hatch

7.According to paragraph 4, why did comparative behaviorists believe that their view of instinct in animal behavior was correct?

A.They had observed that animals can respond to the same stimulus in different ways.

B.They had demonstrated that animals could use learned behaviors in new conditions.

C.They had acquired sufficient evidence that instincts vary from one animal to another.

D.They had shown that the behavior of many different animals had been changed by learning.

8.The word “Obviously” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A.Originally

B.Clearly

C.Similarly

D.Consequently

9.The word “countered” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A.learned

B.argued back

C.assumed

D.predicted

10.In paragraph 5, why does the author discuss the begging behavior of a hatchling bird?

A.To support the view that instinct explains animal behavior better than learning does

B.To demonstrate that ethologists are correct about the limited ability of animals to learn

C.To contrast an ethologist’s explanation of a particular animal behavior with that of a comparative behaviorist

D.To question whether the discussion about the roles of nature and nurture was a valid one

11.The word “current” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A.ideal

B.basic

C.alternative

D.present

12.Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

This view is supported by the behavior of insects as well as animals.

Where would the sentence best fit?

13.Directions: Select from the seven phrases below the phrases that correctly characterize ethologists and the phrases that correctly characterize comparative behaviorists. Drag each phrase you select into the phrases will NOT be used. This question is worth 3 points.

Ethologists

Comparative Behaviorists

Answer Choices

A.Worked primarily in North America

B.Argued that animal behavior is passed on from one generation to another withoutchange over time

C.Maintained from the start that behaviors that are inherited could be influencedby learning

D.Believed that stimulus-response reactions serve to distinguish one animal fromanother just as their physical features do

E.Studied stimulus-response reactions and emphasized the importance of rewards forenforcing and changing behavior

F.Conducted more experiments with birds than with any otherspecies

G.Studied primarily how physical characteristics often determinebehavior.

10月28日

Wind pollination

Pollen, a powdery substance, which is produced by flowering plants and contains male reproductive cells, is usually carried from plant to plant by insects or birds, but some plants rely on the wind to carry their pollen. Wind pollination is often seen as being primitive and wasteful in costly pollen and yet it is surprisingly common, especially in higher latitudes. Wind is very good at moving pollen a long way; pollen can be blown for hundreds of kilometers, and only birds can get pollen anywhere near as far. The drawback is that wind is obviously unspecific as to where it takes the pollen. It is like trying to get a letter to a friend at the other end of the village by climbing onto the roof and throwing an armful of letters into the air and hoping that one will end up in the friend’s garden. For the relatively few dominant tree species that make up temperate forests, where there are many individuals of the same species within pollen range, this is quite a safe gamble. If a number of people in the village were throwing letters off roofs, your friend would be bound to get one. By contrast, in the tropics, where each tree species has few, widely scattered individuals, the chance of wind blowing pollen to another individual is sufficiently slim that animals are a safer bet as transporters of pollen. Even tall trees in the tropics are usually not wind pollinated despite being in windy conditions. In a similar way, trees in temperate forests that are insect pollinated tend to grow as solitary, widely spread individuals.

Since wind-pollinated flowers have no need to attract insects or other animals, they have dispensed with bright petals, nectar, and scent. These are at best a waste and at worst an impediment to the transfer of pollen in the air. The result is insignificant-looking flowers and catkins (dense cylindrical clusters of small, petalless flowers).

Wind pollination does, of course, require a lot of pollen. Birch and hazel trees can produce5.5 and 4 million grains per catkin, respectively. There are various adaptations to help as much of the pollen go as far as possible. Most deciduous wind-pollinated trees (which shed their leaves every fall) produce their pollen in the spring while the branches are bare of leaves to reduce the surrounding surfaces that “compete” with the stigmas (the part of the flower that receives the pollen) for pollen. Evergreen conifers, which do not shed their leaves, have less to gain from spring flowering, and, indeed, some flower in the autumn or winter.

Pollen produced higher in the top branches is likely to go farther, it is windier (and gustier) and the pollen can be blown farther before hitting the ground. Moreover, dangling catkins like hazel hold the pollen in until the wind is strong enough to ben them, ensuring that pollen is only shed into the air when the wind is blowing hard. Weather is also important. Pollen is shed primarily when the air is dry to prevent too much sticking to wet surfaces or being knocked out of the air by rain. Despite these adaptations, much of the pollen fails to leave the top branches, and only between 0.5 percent and 40 percent gets more than 100 meters away from the parent. But once this far, significant quantities can go a kilometer or more. Indeed, pollen can travel many thousands of kilometers at high altitudes. Since all this pollen is floating around in the air, it is no wonder that wind-pollinated trees are a major source of allergies.

Once the pollen has been snatched by the wind, but not everything is left to chance. Windborne pollen is dry, rounded, smooth, and generally smaller than that of insect-pollinated plants. But size is a two-edged sword. Small grains may be blown farther but they are also more prone to be whisked past the waiting stigma because smaller particles tend to stay trapped in the fast-moving air that flows around the stigma. But stigmas create turbulence, which slows the air speed around them and may help pollen stick to them.

1. The word “drawback” in the passage is closet in meaning to

A. other side of the issue

B. objection

C. concern

D. problem

2. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about pollen production?

A. Pollen production requires a significant investment of energy and resources on the part of the plant.

B. The capacity to produce pollen in large quantities is a recent development in the evolutionary history of plants.

C. Plants in the tropics generally produce more pollen than those in temperate zones.

D. The highest levels of pollen production are found in plants that depend on insects or birds to carry their pollen.

3. According to paragraph 1, wind-pollinated trees are most likely to be found

A. in temperate forests

B. at lower latitudes

C. in the tropics

D. surrounded by trees of many different species

4. Paragraph 1 supports which of the following as the reason animals are a safer bet than wind as pollinators when the individual trees of a species are widely separated?

A. Animals tend to carry pollen from a given flower further than the wind does.

B. Animals serve as pollinators even where there is little wind to disperse the pollen.

C. An animal that visits a flower is likely to deliberately visit other flowers of the same species and pollinate them.

D. Birds and insects fly in all directions, not just the direction the wind is blowing at a given moment.

5. In paragraph 1, the author compares pollen moved by wind with letters thrown off roofs in order to

A. explain why there are relatively few species of trees that depend on wind pollination

B. compare natural, biological processes with human social practices

C. make a point about the probability of wind-blown pollen reaching a tree of the same species

D. argue against the common assumption that the tallest trees are the most likely to employ wind pollination

6. Paragraph 2 suggests that wind-pollinated plants do not have bright petals, nectar, and scent for which TWO of the following reasons? To receive credit, you must select TWO answers.

A. They interfere with pollination by wind.

B. They are easily damaged by wind.

C. They are unnecessary.

D. They reduce the amount of pollen that can be produced.

7. The word “respectively” in the passage is closet in meaning to

A. over time

B. separately

C. in that order

D. consistently

8. According to paragraph 3, why do most deciduous wind-pollinated trees produce their pollen in the spring?

A. To avoid competing with evergreen conifers, which flower in the fall or winter

B. So that the leaves of the trees receiving the pollen will not prevent the pollen from reaching the trees’ stigmas

C. Because they do not have enough energy to produce new leaves and pollen at the same time

D. In order to take advantage of the windiest time of year

9. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is NOT an adaptation that helps ensure that pollen travels as far as possible?

A. Pollen-producing flowers and catkins are located at or near the top of the tree.

B. Trees grow at least 100 meters away from each other.

C. Dangling catkins release pollen only when the wind is blowing hard.

D. Pollen is not released during rain storms or when the air is damp.

10. The word “significant” in the passage is closet in meaning to

A. sufficient

B. considerable

C. increasing

D. small

11. The phrase “no wonder” in the passage is closet in meaning to

A. unsurprising

B. understandable

C. well-known

D. unfortunate

12. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A. Because smaller particles tend to stay trapped in the fast-moving air, they are blown much farther than other grains.

B. Smaller particles are trapped by the stigma when fast-moving air flows past it.

C. Small particles that are whisked past the waiting stigma gain speed and are often trapped in the fast-moving air.

D. While smallness helps pollen travel farther, it also makes it more likely to be blown past the stigma.

13. Look at the four squares [] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

This level of volume is important to ensure that at least some of the pollen reaches a target tree, but dispersing the pollen is crucial as well.

Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [] to add the sentence to the passage.

14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.

This question is worth 2 points.

Drag your choices to the spaces where they belong. To review the passage, click on View Text. Answer choices

A. Because there are few trees in temperate forests, it is safer to transport pollen by insects or birds.

B. Wind pollination is a safe reproductive strategy for trees in temperate forests where there are only a few dominant species and, therefore, many individuals of the same species.

C. Wind pollination requires production of large amount of pollen, which must be released at the right time and under the right conditions to extend its range.

D. Most wind-pollinated trees are deciduous because evergreen needles compete with the stigma for pollen, making wind pollination uncertain.

E. Wind-pollinated plants usually have small petalless flowers which often grow in catkins that produce a very fine-grained pollen.

F. Wind-pollinated trees must grow in regions that are only moderately windy because strong winds will blow the tiny pollen grains past the stigma.

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